The African Slave Trade free essay sample

African Slave Trade and Slavery until the End The African population from the 1500’s to the 1800’s was treated inhumanly, enslaved and put to work on plantations, forced to grow many goods for trade. The Europeans chose the African people for a few reasons: There culture, build and being used to hard labor. The African Slave Trade was the largest migration of people in the world. Twelve million moved but only Ten million made it alive. There was a passage that the Europeans used during the African Slave Trade called the Middle Passage for simpler transport.On this middle passage, the treatment of the slaves was horrific and many did not survive the journey. Once in the New World, treatment of the slaves did not get any better. The Slave owner/Slave relationship was not good at all. Slaves did contribute to the formation of their own social and religious ways. We will write a custom essay sample on The African Slave Trade or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many people did believe that slavery was the wrong thing to do to a person and outburst of support opened around the world. This idea of freedom gave the slaves the courage to escape and had ways of doing so. Haiti was an important part of the history of slavery and is important to review.Why did the Europeans take the African’s for slaves? African’s used slavery as a part of their everyday life. When the Europeans arrived overseas in Africa they were intrigued by this idea of slavery. They felt that the African people were used to the hot weather and long and hard working days. They thought of the blacks as inferior as well. They needed people to do their labor in the New World and were sent over in the African Slave Trade (Corretti). Slavery had a different meaning in the New World than it did in Europe. People were considered chattel in the New World.This means that one human was the property of another human. The Europeans needed to find people to keep up with the labor on the plantations in the new world (Corretti). There was a route that was taken from Africa to the new world during the Slave trade. This route was named The Middle Passage. The Middle Passage had a triangular shape and sometimes was called the Triangular Trade. The passage started in Africa and then could go either to Europe to drop off textiles from Africa and to refuel then go to the New World to trade out the slaves or vice versa (Corretti). The journey was a traumatic time for the laves. John Barbot, an agent for the French Royal Company said â€Å"Many of those slaves we transport from Guinea to America are prepossessed with the opinion, that they are carried like sheep to the slaughter, and that the Europeans are fond of their flesh; which notion so far prevails with some, as to make them fall into a deep melancholy and despair (Barbot). † The slaves were packed closely without a lot of air, food and no restrooms. They were treated badly and some so bad that they committed suicide. Out of twelve million slaves moved, only ten million made it to the new world alive. They were all branded, like sheep, with the owners marks† (Maryland State Archives). Once the African slaves made it to the new world their journey was not over. The slaves were shipped to the coast of the New World because it was closer to the ocean and had fewer diseases than territories further from the coast. They went to the south because there were larger plantations and the North was more industrialized. Cotton, tobacco, rice and sugar cane plantations needed labor the most and were located in the south. They were traded off to plantation owners to start their new life (Corretti).The way that the Africans were treated by their owners was negative. â€Å"These slaves are severely and barbarously treated by their masters, who subsist them poorly, and beat them inhumanly, as may be seen by the scabs and wounds on the bodies of many of them when sold to us† (Barbot). Slaves were auctioned off, families were split. They had small houses to sleep and eat in. Work for the slaves started at dawn and went until dusk. They were overseen by a work hand that beat and whipped them (Corretti). The African slaves were from all different areas of the continent.When they were brought to the Americas, they were forced to assimilate into the American culture. A mixed language called Creole was invented by the slaves. They took all of the different dialects of Africa and some American words and phrases and mixed them together. Not only was a language invented but a whole African/American culture was birthed. â€Å"Slaves sang spirituals filled with lyrics about salvation and references to biblical figures like Moses, who led his people to freedom (Sambol-Tosco). They had their own form of dancing, music, cooking and living (Corretti).The religion that the slaves followed was European Christianity. Slaves saw baptism into Christianity as a way out. A lot of plantation owners promised freedom with the conversion to Christianity. This lasted until 1667 when Virginia passed a law stating that the conversion of religion did not give the slave freedom. Many colonies followed Virginia soon after. In the 1800’s a large-scale conversion of enslaved men and women began to the religion of Protestant Evangelicalism (Sambol-Tosco). The Northerners in the New World felt that slavery was against god’s will.In the 17-1800’s a movement against slavery started to pop up in the North. This was called the Abolitionist movement. The Quakers and Puritans of the North started to voice their outrage against slavery. In 1787 the North West Ordinance was written up. This prohibited slavery in Northern Middle America. Abolitionism also existed in England and France. In 1807 the Slave Trade Act was passed in England. This made it Illegal in the British Empire for slavery to exist. Although France took part in the slave trade for a long time, in the 1500’s the Abolitionist movement started in France as well (Corretti).The slaves tried to escape as many times as they possibly could. In France in the 1700’s a revolution of San Dome was declared. The fighting happened until the win of San Dome happened and they declared themselves free and changed their name to Haiti. In the Americas you could run away but there were strict laws if you were caught. The slaves escaped to the North where Slavery was not allowed. Fredrick Douglass was a slave that escaped and got an education. Douglass wrote a biography and argued for the end of slavery. John Brown led a revolt on Harpers Ferry in 1859.The Underground Railroad was an escape route that white abolitionists and free blacks made to help slaves escape to the north (Corretti). Haiti, known in the 1600’s as Saint-Dominque, a name given to them by the French. The main crop of this country is sugar cane crop. This crop is very hard to grow and required a lot of labor. This is why the Africans had enslaved themselves. In 1789, Saint-Dominque made 40 percent of all the sugar in the world and more than half the world’s coffee. 80-90 percent of the population was black and mainly slaves.The remaining 10 -20 percent were white men who explored. In 1791 the Revolt of Saint-Dominque began and started a civil war with France. Because of the number of slaves they were successful. Whites were armed and ready and 4,000 were killed in battle. Finally in 1794, slavery was abolished in all French owned colonies (Corretti). The African Slave Trade was the largest migration of people in the world. Twelve million moved but only Ten million made it alive. The Europeans were attracted to them because their culture had already been accustomed to hard labor.There was a passage that the Europeans used during the African Slave Trade called the Middle Passage for simpler transport. The treatment of the slaves during the journey was horrific and many did not make it alive. Once in the New World, treatment of the slaves did not get any better. The Slave owner/slave relationship was not positive. An outburst of support to the abolitionist movement opened in England, France and America. Haiti was an important part of the history of slavery. The African population from the 1500’s to the 1800’s was treated inhumanly, enslaved and put to work on plantations, forced to grow many goods for trade.

Fruits That Ruin Jell-O and Other Gelatin Desserts

Fruits That Ruin Jell-O and Other Gelatin Desserts If you add certain fruits to Jell-O or other gelatin desserts, the gelatin wont set up. Heres a look at which fruits have this effect and what happens that causes them to ruin Jell-O. Key Takeaways: Fruits That Ruin Gelatin Some fresh fruits prevent Jell-O and other types of gelatin from gelling.These are fruits that contain high levels of proteases. Proteases are enzymes that break chemical bonds in proteins, such as collagen in gelatin.Pineapple, kiwi, papaya, mango, and guava are examples of fruits that cause a problem.Heat inactivates proteases, so cooking fruit before adding it to gelatin prevents any issue. Canned fruit has been heated, so it is also acceptable for use in gelatin desserts. Fruits That Ruin Jell-O The fruits that ruin Jell-O contain enyzmes called proteases which break the chemical bonds that try to form between chains of protein as Jell-O or other gelatin tries to gel. pineapple - bromelainkiwi - actinidinfigs - ficainpapaya - papainpawpaw - papainmangoguavaginger root Only Fresh Fruit Causes a Problem You may have had Jell-O that contained pineapple or another of the fruits on the list. This is because the enzymes in the fruit only disrupt the gelling process if the fruits are fresh or frozen. If the fruit is heated (e.g., canning or cooking) then the enzymes are permanently inactivated, making the fruit perfectly fine for making Jell-O. Jell-Os versatility enabled it to be used in a wide variety of  old fashioned recipes you wont believe people actually ate.

International Human Rights and Social Justice Essay

International Human Rights and Social Justice - Essay Example Ernest Davies, a delegate of the UN stated It should not be forgotten ... that the war by its total disregard of the most fundamental rights was responsible for the declaration (Morsink, 2011). The war served as the precedent for these human rights when nations came together to prevent further war and destruction. Human rights thus became universal at a crucial time in history. While 48 nations accepted the Declaration during its initial phase, these rights were not mandatory on any nation. Rather they were voluntary and paved the way for acceptance in law in many other including Canada where UDHR is part of the legal framework of the country. While many have argued whether these rights are actually universal but they were declared universal because they reflected on the views of the strong Western Nations that came to dominate the world after the Second World War. Even non-western nations consider these rights to be universal since they represent the ideals that these nations strive for. The basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created by Eleanor Roosevelt and Winston Churchill as they represented two of the strongest Western nations- the United States and United Kingdom. The first draft for UDHR was created by John Peters Humphrey which was rewritten by Rene Cassin after minor changes was made. The Declaration was unanimously accepted by all 48 nations who were present during the vote of its acceptance. However, there were eight absenteeism in the form of Saudi Arabia, Soviet Union, Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Ukrainian SSR. Poland, Czechoslovakia, South Africa, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. The structure of the declaration was inspired by Code Napoleon which consisted of a preamble and general articles. The Declaration starts with a Preamble with seven paragraphs. This preamble lays down the reasons for the introduction of the declaration; thus serving as the foundation for the general

Tae Guk Gi (The Brotherhood of War)- (Korean) FILM ESSAY

Tae Guk Gi (The Brotherhood of War)- (Korean) FILM - Essay Example Jin-seok learns of his brothers plans and hopes to stop him from getting himself killed (Je-gyu 2004). He is horrified to see Jin-tae transformed by the war from a caring brother into a cruel soldier that seems to be pursuing glory rather than sacrificing himself to save his brother. The growing division between Jin-seok and Jin-tae reflects the growing division between the people of North Korea and South Korea following the communist revolution while reflecting on the many tragedies of the war. Although Jin-tae succeeds in earning the Medal of Honor for all the risks he takes, he is not successful in sheltering Jin-seok from the war. Jin-seok comes to resent his brother for what he is doing and refuses to go home. However, when the opportunity arises, he seeks out their family to let them know that both of them are okay (Je-gyu 2004). He returns home to find Young-shin being taken away for helping the communists, which she did for food and not for ideological reasons (Je-gyu 2004). When Jin-seok tries to prevent anti-communist partisans from executing Young-shin, he is imprisoned and treated as a communist traitor. Jin-tae attempts to intervene to help his brother and Young-shin and gets himself into trouble as well. Despite his efforts to protect his brother, Jin-tae is unable to stop his commander from ordering the prisoners, which include his brother, from being burned alive when the North Koreans are advancing on their encampment. Somehow, Jin-seok manages to escape th e fire. In the end, the two brothers are reunited after Jin-tae is captured by the North Koreans and joins their ranks as fanatic leading their "Flag Unit", thinking his brother is dead (Je-gyu 2004). Jin-seok loses his hatred for what his brother had become and risks his life to try to bring Jin-tae home safely. Although Jin-seok has to wait 50 years later to discover the fate of his brother, Jin-tae

The Charismatic Leadership Style Essay Example for Free

The Charismatic Leadership Style Essay The Charismatic Leadership Style I have chosen to write my journal article on a leadership style known as a Ccharismatic Leader. Its difficult to identify the characteristics that make a leader charismatic, but they certainly include the ability to communicate on a very powerful emotional level, and probably include some personality traits. I do not believe that charismatic leadership is essential to be an effective leader but it can enhance the leadership journey. The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through based upon their personality and charm, rather than any form of external power or authority. Possessing these characteristics can be an extremely powerful way to gain and lead others. They can also make their followers (ordinary people) do some pretty extraordinary things. Charismatic leaders have the ability to sense the gap that exists between what an organization and culture of people and empower them to come together as one. By bridging this gap the leader can create a vision of a future state that everyone believes will be better than the current one. The charismatic leader often communicates their vision using metaphors and stories in ways that everyone can understand the vision. Their followers see the leader as one that possesses the ability to visualize the future with clarity. Their followers are also able to see how they fit into this future state and believe it will be better than today. Charismatic leaders do these things constantly in large and small ways. Charismatic Leaders are visionaries. They focus on transforming situations, not just maintaining. They will show great confidence in their followers. They are very persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as verbal language. Many politicians use a charismatic style, as they need to gather a large number of followers. The person who I think is a great charismatic leader is Barack Obama. I have listened to a lot of his speeches and he has the power to motivate and empower people with his words, his testimony and his story of overcoming many trials and obstacles. Barack Obama is often compared to John F. Kennedy, who is arguably the most charismatic President of the United States. â€Å"Todays environment emphasizes organizational learning and follower empowerment conditions that promote mutual respect and dialogue. However, even in this environment leaders can, sometimes unwittingly, enact subtle abuses. Generally included in the typical definition of power are the notions of dependency and control: a leaders ability to determine followers behavior stems at least in part from the followers dependency on the leader. This, in turn, is based on leaders control over the various aspects of organizational life affecting followers or perceived as needed by followers, such as material resources and organizational advancement.

King George I :: essays research papers

King George I King George I was born in 1660 at Osnabuuck, the eldest son of Ernest Augustus-Duke of Brunswick-Lunchburg and first Elector of Hanover. Because his father was the Elector of Hanover, George was the Electoral Price of the Empire. He was also in the imperial army, who faced battles against the Dutch, the Turks, Nine Years War, and in the War of Spanish Succession. George soon became a talented and experienced General. He went on to command in many wars. He eventually became lector of Hanover in 1698(2001 World Book Encyclopedia).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  George I married Sophia Dorothea, heiress of Duchy of Brunswick and Zell, in 1682. He and his cousin Sophia had one boy and one girl before the marriage turned sour. George was a bad husband with many mistresses while Sophia had many close guy â€Å"friends.† In 1694, George divorced Sophia and accused her of adultry. Being a prominent male in Hanover, the future king of England had her put into prison for 32 years, where she died in 1726.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  George I became King of England in 1714 when his distant cousin Queen Ann died. After Ann’s last surviving child had died in 1700, many people claimed that only her half brother James Francis Edward Stuart, a Roman Catholic and son of King James II, had right to succeed her. In 1701, the parliament passed an Act of Settlement that made sure no Catholic would be Monarch. The act provided that Princess Sophia, a Protestant, would succeed Ann as ruler of England unless Ann had another child. Sophia’s son George, became heir to the throne in August 1714(The Royal Heraldry of England).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  King George was 54 years of age when he took the throne. He was said to be undignified without the slightest knowledge of the English language. This prevented him from taking part in cabinet councils. He never bothered to learn the language of his new kingdom, although he already knew Latin, French, and Italian. George also showed no appreciation for the English culture. Englishmen Samuel Johnson summarized his thoughts on King George by saying, â€Å"George I knew nothing and desired to know nothing; do nothing and desired to do nothing,†(Western Civilization Volume II).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Due to George’s little interaction with parliament, it further asserted itself with a new coronation of oath, requiring each monarch to swear to obey parliamentary statutes. It established a mandatory term of office for itself, gained tighter control over the budget and army, and produced a Bill of Rights that guaranteed citizens many liberties.

Flow Measurement – Fluid Mechanics

Name: ******** Class: DME2 Title: Flow Measurement Date: 11/02/2013 Lecturer: Mr Higgins Summary: In this experiment many different meters were used to measure fluid flow rate; the orifice plate, the venture meter, the rota meter and the weigh tank. Each meter works by its ability to alter a certain physical property of the flowing fluid and then allows this alteration to be measured. The measured alterations are linked directly to the flow rate and these measurements are subbed in to adjusted equations to solve for it. Each methods outcome is then analysed, compared against each other. . Objectives: * To introduce the student to three typical methods of measuring he flow rate of an incompressible fluid namely; 1- Venturi metre 2- Orifice plate 3- Rotor metre * To compare the accuracy of each device. * To give insight into appropriate industrial application for each device. 2. Theory: Water enters and first flows through the Venturi metre, then through the Orifice plate and then thro ugh the Rotor meter. On leaving the Rotor meter the water flows via a control valve to the weigh-tank of the hydraulic bench.At the inlet and the outlet of each flow measuring device is a connection to the manometer board, this allows the head loss to be determined across each device. For an incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe the following equations apply: Continuity, Q=V1A1=V2A2(1) Bernoulli’s P1? g+V122g+z1=P2? g+V222g+z2(2) Venturi Rewriting Bernoulli’s equation for the experimental apparatus PA? g+VA22g+zA=PB? g+VB22g+zB Since apparatus is horizontal ZA=ZB therefore, PA? g+VA22g=PB? g+VB22g Rearranging VB22g+VA22g=PA? g+PB? gSince P/? g is the hydrostatic (pressure) head, h at any given point we can rewrite the above equation as, VB22g+VA22g=hA-hB(3) Where hAand hB are read directly from the apparatus. To solve for velocities, we rearrange equation (1), VA=VBABAA Filling into equation (3), VB22g+VBABAA22g=hA-hB(4) Hence the only unknown asVB. Therefore, to find the flow rate, determine VB from equation (4) and then Q is given by. Q=VBAB (5) Orifice Q is calculated using the same procedure as the Venturi meter using ports E and F as opposed to A and B.However, because the orifice plate is less ideal, it causes turbulence in the flow it requires a correction factor known as the coefficient of discharge, K. For this apparatus K=0. 601 therefore, the calculated Q must be multiplied by K, Qactual=Qtheoretical? K Rotor meter The flow rate is read directly off the rotor meter calibration curve as seen in the graph h below. 3. Apparatus: * The bulk of the apparatus used in this experiment is as shown below on a labelled diagram. * The flow of water was manually varied by a screw type tap. The weight balance is not shown but is acted on a counter balancing weight system. In this experiment a 4kg weight was dropped and the time was started. The length of time was determined by how long it would take for the water to raise the weight. This (wit h a 1:3 weight is to water ratio) allowed the mass flow rate to be calculated. Rotameter Rotameter Manometers Manometers 4. Orifice Orifice Venturi Venturi Procedure: 1. Set flow rate to maximum. 2. Record the monometer readings A, B, E and F. 3. Measure the discharge using the weigh-tank. 4. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 for 6 other flow rates. 5.Draw a graph of volumetric flow rate measured by the weigh-tank versus volumetric flow rate measured by the other three devices (all on one graph). 6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each device from an installation view. 5. Experimental Results: | Amm| Bmm| Emm| Fmm| Rota-meter| Flow rate (weigh – tank) @4kg (s)| 1| 378| 131| 349| 86| 21. 4| 25| 2| 345| 162| 326| 130| 18. 4| 31. 8| 3| 320| 188| 304| 165| 15. 2| 37| 4| 298| 202| 288| 191| 12. 3| 47. 5| 5| 282| 222| 274| 211| 9. 3| 59. 4| 6| 266| 236| 262| 232| 5. 4| 91. 5| Position| A| B| E| F| Diameter (m)| 0. 026| 0. 016| 0. 051| 0. 020| 6.Sample Calculations: Venturi: As Q =VA, the volume (V) and the area (A) must be calculated first. Volume is found from the equation (4) as shown in theory being rearranged; VB22g+VBABAA22g=hA-hB VB2-VB2AB2AA2=hA-hB2g VB21-AB2AA2=hA-hB2g VB2=hA-hB2g1-AB2AA2 VB2=hA-hB2g1-AB2AA2 VB=hA-hB2g1-AB2AA2 From this equation, V can now be calculated using the results from the experiment. Calculation carried out for first instance: AA=? 0. 02624AB=? 0. 01624 AA=5. 3093? 10-4m2AB=2. 0106? 10-4m2 h = the height read from the manometer in the experiment. VB=0. 378-0. 131(29. 8)1-(2. 0106? 10-4)2(5. 3093? 10-42)2 VB=4. 4120. 85659 VB=5. 6517 VB=2. 3773m/s Now that the velocity at point B and the area of point B is calculated, Q can now be worked out; QB=VBAB QB=2. 3773? (2. 0106? 10-4) Volumetric Flow RateB=4. 7799? 10-4m3/s To convert into kg/s; QB=(4. 7799? 10-4)? 1000 Mass Flow rate B=0. 4779kg/s Orifice: To calculate the mass flow rate using the orifice method, calculations very similar to the venture method are used. The positio ns are now different so therefore the diameters are changed in finding Q. AA/VA and AB/VB are now obviously changed to AE/VE and AF/VF but otherwise the exact same method is used to find VF.However, the overall mass flow rate has to be corrected by a factor of K=0. 0601 due to a less efficient apparatus being tested. AE=? 0. 05124AF=? 0. 02024 AE=2. 0428? 10-3m2AF=3. 1416? 10-4m2 VF=hE-hF2g1-AF2AE2 VF=0. 349-0. 08629. 811-3. 1416? 10-42. 0428? 10-32 VF=5. 16. 97635 VF=5. 2851 VF=2. 298m3/s Q=VFAF Q=2. 2983. 1416? 10-4 Q=7. 223? 10-4 Now multiplied by correction factor and converted to kg/s; Q=7. 223? 10-4)(0. 601)(1000) Q=0. 43406 kg/s Rota-meter The mass flow of water is worked out in this method by feeding the results read from the rotor meter into the graph as shown below; Weigh TankThe ratio of weight of the load to the weight of the water in this lab is 1:3. A weight was applied to the time the discharge was 4kg. Therefore the time taken for this discharge can allow us to calcu late the mass flow rate as Mass flow Rate = KG/S. So for the first test; Q=4325 Q=0. 48kg/s 7. Calculated results: | Venturi (kg/s)| Orifice (kg/s)| Rota meter(kg/s)| Weigh tank(kg/s)| 1| 0. 4779| 0. 4341| 0. 463| 0. 48| 2| 0. 4116| 0. 3747| 0. 404| 0. 3773| 3| 0. 3496| 0. 3156| 0. 341| 0. 3243| 4| 0. 2981| 0. 2636| 0. 284| 0. 2526| 5| 0. 2357| 0. 2124| 0. 224| 0. 202| 6| 0. 1667| 0. 1466| 0. 152| 0. 1312| 8. Discussions:The measurement of fluid flow can prove very important in day to day applications. For example the measurements of blood-flow rates in human artery or the measurement of liquid oxygen in a rocket are hugely important in their field of work. Although the methods used in this lab may not all work in these cases, the selection of the proper instruments for a particular application is hugely important. Flow-rate-measurement devices frequently require accurate pressure and temperature measurements in order to calculate the output of the instrument so choosing the correct method of measurement is hugely important.Each of the flow measurement devices used had its own advantages and disadvantages. Comparing the venturi meter the orifice plate there are some noticeable differences. Although both are suitable for clean or dirty fluids the orifice plate has a relatively low cost compared to the venturi meter. But on the other hand the orifice plate does require a smaller diameter in compared to the venture meter. In day to day applications these two factors could have huge effect on the choice in application. Cost is always a huge factor in any application decision and depending on the requirements for the application size could also play a vital role.The weigh tank is a somewhat more basic approach to measuring the mass flow rate of fluid. The human element of error in the timing of the weights displacement can be easily corrected by machinery and could prove very effective for applications measuring flow. The rota meter is also a simple but effective m ethod of flow measurement. The simple effects of parallax are a disadvantage to this application but again in day to day modern applications, computerised sensory machines can correct this very easily. 9. Conclusion: Overall this lab was a success.The results are all within the range of having explainable errors such as; * The main error predicted is due to the ‘snowball effect’ in calculations, where a rounding off of results at the beginning of a number of equations has a greater effect with the end result. This rounding error can have greater effects than thought and can drastically vary the end result. * Parallax is another error caused across each application. The heights read across the manometers and the rotameter can be easily read wrong. Along with the meniscus of the fluid giving a false level and a wrong angle at the result reading can change the end result also. Human error is always a small error to be taken into account, especially when using the stop watc h in the weight tank method of measuring the flow rate. The likelihood of reading the exact time needed is very small. This again can have huge effect on the accuracy of the result achieved. By carrying out this laboratory students were able to become comfortable with calculations and equations that were ran through in class. The ‘hands on approach’ of this lab allows students to understand the theory better and this in turn results in easier revision when studying for exams.Overall this laboratory and its results proved successful, with results accurate with an explainable percentage of error and with students having a greater understanding in this area. 10. Bibliography: 1. CIT laboratory manual: Fluid mechanics-B. S. Massey, Applied mechanics – J. D. Walker, Fluid mechanics – Irfan A. Khan, Mechanical Engineering Science- J. Hannah and M. J. Hiller. 2. Wikipedia – formulas / units confirmation 3. http://fetweb. ju. edu. jo – general inform ation on each measuring meter used.